History of science and technology


The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history which examines how humanity's understanding of science and technology has changed over the millennia. Without this understanding, development of new technologies would have been improbable. This field of history also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of scientific innovation. Modern mathematical science and physical engineering as it is understood today took form in the scientific revolution, but was built on the work of the Greek and Islamic civilizations, which in turn had learned from the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India. In technology, during most of history up to that time, the most advanced part of the world was China.

Challenge to orthodoxy

A persistent theme in the history of science and technology has been the poor reception so often given to those who espouse ideas contrary to the prevailing orthodoxy. The story of Galileo has often been taken as a case in point: some natural philosophers and astronomers, especially those in areas closely influenced by religious orthodoxy, were reluctant to check their theories by looking through the newly-invented telescope as Galileo did. It is a poor example, however, because within a few years Galileo was one of the most honored scientists in Italy, and held in high regard by the Jesuit astronomers of the Collegium Romanum—who were using telescopes with enthusiasm. After enough time, even the most unpopular idea can become a new scientific orthodoxy, if it can survive experimental test satisfactorily. A famous recent example would be the theory of plate tectonics, which is now basic to any study of large-scale effects in geology. There is a controversy over whether we are more receptive to new scientific paradigms now than in Galileo's time. While some see Galileo's saga as an example of the arrogance of authority, others argue that rejection of new ideas today cannot be directly compared with examples such as Galileo. They claim that theories developed and tested by following the currently accepted principles of scientific investigation closely, as Galileo did, are generally accepted however surprising they may be, whereas ideas that make yet unproven and seemingly unjustified assumptions are termed pseudoscience. The excess heat observed in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment, which they and some others have attributed to cold fusion, is a challenge to orthodoxy that is not yet fully resolved. The first report, which received extremely intense press coverage, caused many physicists to attempt to reproduce the experiment (a necessary process in science); these first attempts resulted in many complete failures, at least three widely reported claims of success that were later withdrawn, and no clear and reproducible successes. Since then, the experiment has been repeated by other scientists who have reported various degrees of success. Because of lack of clear confirmation, as well as on theoretical grounds and criticisms of experimental methods, claims of cold fusion have been rejected as pathological science or even pseudoscience by most mainstream scientists.

Early technology

Islamic contributions to the sciences

When the power of Greek civilization was eclipsed by the Roman Empire, many Greek doctors began to practice medicine for the Roman elite. But, sadly the physical sciences were merely supported by the Romans. With the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe entered the so-called Dark Ages, where scientific research was left to be nurtured by Church intellectuals like monks until the age of the scientific revolution. The rise of Christianity saw a strange paradox: classical Greek philosophy (along with Greek and Roman art, literature and religious iconography) was suppressed and at the same time, safeguarded. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some short-lived support by the newly created Arab Caliphate (Empire). Later Islamic orthodoxy started rejecting Greek philosophy as it was found incompatible with Islam's tenets. Islamic scholars used previous work in medicine, astronomy and mathematics as a bedrock to develop new fields like alchemy (chemistry). A popular Islamic scholar, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to what we now call an algorithm, and the word algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the name of one of his publications in which he developed a system of solving quadratic equations. Researchers like Al-Batani (850-929) richly contibuted in the fields of astronomy and mathematics and Al-Razi in chemistry. (See Damascus steel (wootz steel), and the Baghdad Battery -- Arab Alchemy inspired both Roger Bacon and Isaac Newton.) Al-Batani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of the Greek Hè Megalè Syntaxis (''the great treatise'') translated as Almagest during the Islamic renaissance of astronomy. About 900, Al-Batani improved the precision of themeasurement of the earth's axis, thus continuing a millennium's legacy in measurements in his own land (Babylonia and Chaldea- what is now Iraq). The Islamic versions of early scientific methods had a strong does of ethics.

Indian contributions to the sciences

Al-Batani's contributions to astronomy may be independent of Aryabhata b.476- in what is now Patna, Bihar, India. Other contributions from India include the knowledge of wootz steel and the positional number system with zero.

Chinese contributions to the sciences

In astronomy, The book Gan Shi Xing Jing (甘石星经) of the Warring States Period (403 BC to 221 BC) is the earliest catalog of stars in the world. On July 4th, 1054, Chinese astronomers noted the appearance of a guest star, the supernova now called the Crab Nebula, Messier's M1. In mathematics, Zu Chongzhi (祖冲之) of the Northern and Southern Dynasties was the first person to calculate the value of Pi to seven decimal places. Other major contributions from China include early seismological detectors, paper, the iron plough, water power, belt drive, the suspension bridge, the paddle wheel boat, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic compass, gunpowder and rocket technology.

Mayan contributions to the sciences

This civilization did not smelt metals or use the wheel; they possessed a system of writing and amazing fluency with flint-knapping including portraiture in flint. Their calendar utilized a base-20 number system with zero, and an understanding of astronomy sufficiently accurate to support an accurate calendar, 1000 years ahead of any in Europe, as of 650.

General History of science and technology

By major areas/sub-fields

See also: Timelines of Science and Technology

Science

General essays on scientific revolution and scientific enterprise

Social science

Technology

See also

References

Category:History of science Category:History of technology Category:Industrial Revolution ca:Història de la Ciència de:Wissenschaftsgeschichte eo:Historio de Scienco kaj Teknologio es:Historia de la ciencia fr:Histoire des sciences it:Storia della Scienza e della Tecnica ja:科学史 sl:Zgodovina znanosti in tehnologije zh:自然科学史
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